UNIT 12

The First Conditional

The first conditional has the present simple after 'if', then the future simplein the other clause:

• if + present simple, ... will + infinitive

It's used to talk about things which might happen in the future. Of course, we can't know what will happen in the future, but this describes possible things, which could easily come true.

• If it rains, I won't go to the park.
• If I study today, I'll go to the party tonight.
• If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes.
• She'll be late if the train is delayed.
• She'll miss the bus if she doesn't leave soon.
• If I see her, I'll tell her.

If and when 

If  expresses a posibility that something will happen.

When expresses what the speaker sees as certain to happen.

• When I get home, I will have a shower.

First vs. Zero Conditional:

The first conditional describes a particular situation, whereas the zero conditional describes what happens in general.

For example (zero conditional): if you sit in the sun, you get burned (here I'm talking about every time a person sits in the sun - the burning is a natural consequence of the sitting)

But (first conditional): if you sit in the sun, you'll get burned (here I'm talking about what will happen today, another day might be different)


Might

"Might" is most commonly used to express possibility. It is also often used in conditional sentences. English speakers can also use "might" to make suggestions or requests, although this is less common in American English.

Examples:

• Your purse might be in the living room. possibility
• If I didn't have to work, I might go with you. conditional
• You might visit the botanical gardens during your visit. suggestion
• Might I borrow your pen? request

Using "Might" in Present, Past, and Future

Most modal verbs behave quite irregularly in the past and the future. Study the chart below to learn how "might" behaves in different contexts.

Modal Use	Positive Forms 1. = Present   2. = Past   3. = Future	Negative Forms 1. = Present   2. = Past   3. = Future	Also use:
might possibility	1. She might be on the bus. I think her car is having problems.2. She might have taken the bus. I'm not sure how she got to work. 3. She might take the bus to get home. I don't think Bill will be able to give her a ride.	1. She might not be on the bus. She might be walking home.2. She might not have taken the bus. She might have walked home. 3. She might not take the bus. She might get a ride from Bill.	could, may
might conditional of may	1. If I entered the contest, I might actually win.2. If I had entered the contest, I might actually have won. 3. If I entered the contest tomorrow, I might actually win. Unfortunately, I can't enter it.	1. Even if I entered the contest, I might not win.2. Even if I had entered the contest, I might not have won. 3. Even if I entered the contest tomorrow, I might not win.
might suggestion	1. NO PRESENT FORM2. You might have tried the cheese cake. 3. You might try the cheesecake.	1. NO PRESENT FORM2. PAST FORM UNCOMMON 3. You might not want to eat the cheese cake. It's very calorific.	could
might request(British form)	Might I have something to drink?Might I borrow the stapler? Requests usually refer to the near future.	NEGATIVE FORMS UNCOMMON	could, may, can

REMEMBER: "Might not" vs. "Could not"  "Might not" suggests you do not know if something happens. "Could not" suggests that it is impossible for something to happen. Examples: Jack might not have the key. Maybe he does not have the key. Jack could not have the key. It is impossible that he has the key.

The Second Conditional

The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the infinitive:

• if + past simple, ...would + infinitive

(We can use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in formal writing).

It has two uses.

First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are probably not going to be true. Maybe I'm imagining some dream for example.

• If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't win the lottery)
• If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello.
• She would travel all over the world if she were rich.
• She would pass the exam if she ever studied.(She never studies, so this won't happen)

Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present which is impossible, because it's not true. Is that clear? Have a look at the examples:

• If I had his number, I would call him. (I don't have his number now, so it's impossible for me to call him).
• If I were you, I wouldn't go out with that man.

How is this different from the first conditional?

This kind of conditional sentence is different from the first conditional because this is a lot more unlikely.

For example (second conditional): If I had enough money I would buy a house with twenty bedrooms and a swimming pool (I'm probably not going to have this much money, it's just a dream, not very real)

But (first conditional): If I have enough money, I'll buy some new shoes (It's much more likely that I'll have enough money to buy some shoes)

First vs. Second Conditional:

The first conditional describes things that I think are likely to happen in the future, whereas the second conditional talks about things that I don't think will really happen. It's subjective; it depends on my point of view.

For example (first conditional): If she studies harder, she'll pass the exam (I think it's possible she will study harder and so she'll pass)

But (second conditional): If she studied harder, she would pass the exam (I think that she won't study harder, or it's very unlikely, and so she won't pass)

Click here for an exercise about making the first conditional

Click here for all the conditional exercises


READING AND SPEAKING

exist	suitable	evaporate	rotate	axis
surface	Permeant X temporary	angle	hemisphere	extreme
Cover- covered	block	harmful	gravity	Consist of
observable	burn	expand	explode	giant
expand	drop	miraculous	precious	milky way

PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE

                                                           PREPOSITIONS OF TIME

UNIT 11

PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

FORM

[has/have + been + present participle]

Examples:

• You have been waiting here for two hours.
• Have you been waiting here for two hours?
• You have not been waiting here for two hours.

Complete List of Present Perfect Continuous Forms

USE 1 Duration from the Past Until Now

We use the Present Perfect Continuous to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the Present Perfect Continuous.

Examples:

• They have been talking for the last hour.
• She has been working at that company for three years.
• What have you been doing for the last 30 minutes?
• James has been teaching at the university since June.
• We have been waiting here for over two hours!
• Why has Nancy not been taking her medicine for the last three days?

USE 2 Recently, Lately

You can also use the Present Perfect Continuous WITHOUT a duration such as "for two weeks." Without the duration, the tense has a more general meaning of "lately." We often use the words "lately" or "recently" to emphasize this meaning.

Examples:

• Recently, I have been feeling really tired.
• She has been watching too much television lately.
• Have you been exercising lately?
• Mary has been feeling a little depressed.
• Lisa has not been practicing her English.
• What have you been doing?

IMPORTANT

• Sometimes there is little or no difference in meaning between the Present Perfect Simple and Continuous.
• How long have you worked here?
• How long have you been working here?

• Some verbs have the idea of a long time:  wait, work, learn, travel, play
  These verbs can often be found in the Present Perfect Continuous.
• I have been waiting for hours.

        Some verbs don't have the idea of a long time: find, start, buy, die, lose, break, stop

        These verbs are used in the Present Perfect Simple.

• I have bought a new dress.
• My cat has died.
• My radio has broken.

• Verbs that express a state -like, love, know, have (for possession), are not found in the Present Perfect Continuous.
• We have known each other for weeks.

•  If the sentence gives a number or quantity, the Present Perfect Simple is used.
• I have been writing emails all morning.
• I have written twenty letters.

Remember that the Present Perfect Continuous has the meaning of "lately" or "recently." If you use the Present Perfect Continuous in a question such as "Have you been feeling alright?", it can suggest that the person looks sick or unhealthy. A question such as "Have you been smoking?" can suggest that you smell the smoke on the person. Using this tense in a question suggests you can see, smell, hear or feel the results of the action. It is possible to insult someone by using this tense incorrectly.

REMEMBER Non-Continuous Verbs/ Mixed Verbs

It is important to remember that Non-Continuous Verbs cannot be used in any continuous tenses. Also, certain non-continuous meanings forMixed Verbs cannot be used in continuous tenses. Instead of using Present Perfect Continuous with these verbs, you must use Present Perfect.

Examples:

• Sam has been having his car for two years. Not Correct
• Sam has had his car for two years. Correct

ADVERB PLACEMENT

The examples below show the placement for grammar adverbs such as: always, only, never, ever, still, just, etc.

Examples:

• You have only been waiting here for one hour.
• Have you only been waiting here for one hour?

ACTIVE / PASSIVE

Examples:

• Recently, John has been doing the work. Active
• Recently, the work has been being done by John. Passive

NOTE: Present Perfect Continuous is less commonly used in its passive form.

EXERCISES AND RELATED TOPICS

• Verb Tense Exercise 7 Present Perfect and Present Perfect Continuous
• Verb Tense Exercise 8 Present Perfect and Present Perfect Continuous
• Verb Tense Exercise 9 Present Continuous and Present Perfect Continuous
• Verb Tense Exercise 10 Present Continuous and Present Perfect Continuous
• Verb Tense Exercise 14 Present Perfect, Past Perfect, Present Perfect Continuous, and Past Perfect Continuous
• Verb Tense Exercise 15 Tenses with durations
• Verb Tense Exercise 16 Present and Past Tenses with Non-Continuous Verbs
• Verb Tense Exercise 17 Present and Past Tense Review
• Verb Tense Practice Test Cumulative Verb Tense Review
• Verb Tense Final Test Cumulative Verb Tense Review

TENSE REVISION 1

TENSE REVISION 2


READING AND SPEAKING

Generous-generosity	close	distant	In common	kidnap
Pay the ransom	inherit	loving	cruel	caring
plague	proof	sweetheart	Party-loving	disaster
Drug overdose	demand	refuse	release	donate
Drug addiction Drug addict Drug addicted	bury	expel	imprison	recover
Have a stroke	paralyzed	Boarding school	modest	upbringing

VOCABULARY

due

pregnant

widowed -   widow

engaged

funeral

die of

miss

alive

UNIT 10

Use of Passive

Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action.

Example: My bike was stolen.

In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do not know, however, who did it.

Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the following example shows:

Example: A mistake was made.

In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.).

Form of Passive

Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)

Example: A letter was written.

When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

• the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence
• the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
• the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)

Examples of Passive 

Tense		Subject	Verb	Object
Simple Present	Active:	Rita	writes	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	is written	by Rita.
Simple Past	Active:	Rita	wrote	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	was written	by Rita.
Present Perfect	Active:	Rita	has written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	has been written	by Rita.
Future I	Active:	Rita	will write	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	will be written	by Rita.
Hilfsverben	Active:	Rita	can write	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	can be written	by Rita.

Examples of Passive 

Tense		Subject	Verb	Object
Present Progressive	Active:	Rita	is writing	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	is being written	by Rita.
Past Progressive	Active:	Rita	was writing	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	was being written	by Rita.
Past Perfect	Active:	Rita	had written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	had been written	by Rita.
Future II	Active:	Rita	will have written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	will have been written	by Rita.
Conditional I	Active:	Rita	would write	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	would be written	by Rita.
Conditional II	Active:	Rita	would have written	a letter.
	Passive:	A letter	would have been written	by Rita.

Passive Sentences with Two Objects 

Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains an object. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want to put the focus on.

	Subject	Verb	Object 1	Object 2
Active:	Rita	wrote	a letter	to me.
Passive:	A letter	was written	to me	by Rita.
Passive:	I	was written	a letter	by Rita.

.

As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very elegant. That’s why it is usually dropped.

Personal and Impersonal Passive

Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive.

Example: They build houses. – Houses are built.

Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal construction – therefore this passive is called Impersonal Passive.

Example: he says – it is said

Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other languages (e.g. German, Latin). In English,Impersonal Passive is only possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know).

Example: They say that women live longer than men. – It is said that women live longer than men.

Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is more common.

Example: They say that women live longer than men. – Women are said to live longer than men.

The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain auxiliary verbs and that are dropped).

Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the passive sentence.

Exercises on Passive (Form)

• Exercise on Passive with Simple Present 
• Exercise on Passive with Simple Past 
• Exercise on Passive with Present Perfect 
• Exercise on Passive with Future I 

Exercises on Passive (Active → Passive)

• Exercise on Passive with Simple Present 
• Exercise on Passive with Simple Past 
• Exercise on Passive with Present Perfect 
• Exercise on Passive with Future I 
• Exercise on Passive with Auxiliary Verbs 
• Mixed Exercise on Passive with Passive 
• Sentences with 2 Objects (Indirect Object, Personal Passive) 
• Sentences with 2 Objects (Direct Object)
• Personal Passive (verbs of perception)

ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS

Definitions

• An adjective is a word or set of words that modifies (i.e., describes) a noun or pronoun. Adjectives may come before the word they modify.

Examples:
That is a cute puppy.
She likes a high school senior.

Adjectives may also follow the word they modify:

Examples:
That puppy looks cute.
The technology is state-of-the-art.

• An adverb is a word or set of words that modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Adverbs answer how, when, where, why, or to what extent—how often or how much (e.g.,daily, completely).

Examples:
He speaks slowly (tells how)
He speaks very slowly (the adverb very tells how slowly)
She arrived today (tells when)
She will arrive in an hour (this adverb phrase tells when)
Let's go outside (tells where)
We looked in the basement (this adverb phrase tells where)
Bernie left to avoid trouble (this adverb phrase tells why)
Jorge works out strenuously (tells to what extent)
Jorge works out whenever possible (this adverb phrase tells to what extent)

Rule 1. Many adverbs end in -ly, but many do not. Generally, if a word can have -ly added to its adjective form, place it there to form an adverb.

Examples:
She thinks quick/quickly.
How does she think? Quickly.

She is a quick/quickly thinker.
Quick is an adjective describing thinker, so no -ly is attached.

She thinks fast/fastly.
Fast answers the question how, so it is an adverb. But fast never has -ly attached to it.

We performed bad/badly.
Badly describes how we performed, so -ly is added.

Rule 2. Adverbs that answer the question how sometimes cause grammatical problems. It can be a challenge to determine if -ly should be attached. Avoid the trap of -ly with linking verbssuch as taste, smell, look, feel, which pertain to the senses. Adverbs are often misplaced in such sentences, which require adjectives instead.

Examples:
Roses smell sweet/sweetly.
Do the roses actively smell with noses? No; in this case, smell is a linking verb—which requires an adjective to modify roses—so no -ly.

The woman looked angry/angrily to us.
Did the woman look with her eyes, or are we describing her appearance? We are describing her appearance (she appeared angry), so no -ly.

The woman looked angry/angrily at the paint splotches.
Here the woman actively looked (used her eyes), so the -ly is added.

She feels bad/badly about the news.
She is not feeling with fingers, so no -ly.

Rule 3. The word good is an adjective, whose adverb equivalent is well.

Examples:
You did a good job.
Good describes the job.

You did the job well.
Well answers how.

You smell good today.
Good describes your fragrance, not how you smell with your nose, so using the adjective is correct.

You smell well for someone with a cold.
You are actively smelling with your nose here, so use the adverb.

Rule 4. The word well can be an adjective, too. When referring to health, we often use wellrather than good.

Examples:
You do not look well today.
I don't feel well, either.

Rule 5. Adjectives come in three forms, also called degrees. An adjective in its normal or usual form is called a positive degree adjective. There are also the comparative andsuperlative degrees, which are used for comparison, as in the following examples:

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
sweet	sweeter	sweetest
bad	worse	worst
efficient	more efficient	most efficient

A common error in using adjectives and adverbs arises from using the wrong form of comparison. To compare two things, always use a comparative adjective:

Example: She is the cleverer of the two women (never cleverest)

The word cleverest is what is called the superlative form of clever. Use it only when comparing three or more things:

Example: She is the cleverest of them all.

Incorrect: Chocolate or vanilla: which do you like best?

Correct: Chocolate or vanilla: which do you like better?

Rule 6. There are also three degrees of adverbs. In formal usage, do not drop the -ly from an adverb when using the comparative form.

Incorrect: She spoke quicker than he did.

Correct: She spoke more quickly than he did.

Incorrect: Talk quieter.

Correct: Talk more quietly.

Rule 7. When this, that, these, and those are followed by a noun, they are adjectives. When they appear without a noun following them, they are pronouns.

Examples:
This house is for sale.
This is an adjective.

This is for sale.
This is a pronoun.

EXERCISE

VOCABULARY

evolve	share	event	create
design	fashionable	extend	variety
exchange	evolution	searchable	access
revolution	predict	detect	infect
appear	identify	passion	invent
estimate	tiny	bookmark	download
Long in	spam